Key 8: Which attribute will be used.
Attributes are values that are associated with an object that can be referenced by name using dotted expressions. It is important to understand how attributes of an object are found. The following is the sequence that is used to search an attribute:
If an attribute is a special method, and it exists in the object's type (or bases), return it, for example:
__call__,__str__, and__init__. When these methods are searched, their behavior is only in the instance's type:>>> class C: ... def __str__(self,): ... return 'Class String' ... def do(self): ... return 'Class method' ... >>> c = C() >>> print(c) Class String >>> print(c.do()) Class method >>> def strf(*args): ... return 'Instance String',args ... >>> def doo(*args): ... return 'Instance Method' ... >>> c.do = doo >>> c.__str__ = strf >>> print(c) Class String >>> print(c.do()) Instance Method
If an object's type has a
__getattribute__attribute, then this method is invoked to get the attribute whether this attribute is present or not. It is the total responsibility of__getattribute__to get the attribute. As shown in the following code snippet, even if the do method is present, it is not found asgetattributedidn't return any attribute:>>> class C: ... def do(self): ... print("asdf") ... def __getattribute__(self,attr): ... raise AttributeError('object has no attribute "%s"'%attr) ... >>> c = C() >>> c.do() Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> File "<stdin>", line 5, in __getattribute__ AttributeError: object has no attribute "do" >>>Search in object's type
__dict__to find the attribute. If it is present, and it is data descriptor, return it:>>> class Desc: ... def __init__(self, i): ... self.i = i ... def __get__(self, obj, objtype): ... return self.i ... def __set__(self,obj, value): ... self.i = value ... >>> class C: ... attx = Desc(23) ... >>> c = C() >>> c.attx 23 >>> c.__dict__['attx'] = 1234 >>> c.attx 23 >>> C.attx = 12 >>> c.attx 1234
Search in object's
__dict__type (and if this object is class, search bases__dict__as well) to find the attribute. If the attribute is descriptor, return the result.Search in object's type
__dict__to find the attribute. If the attribute is found, return it. If it is non-data descriptor, return its result, and check in other bases using the same logic:>>> class Desc: ... def __init__(self, i): ... self.i = i ... def __get__(self, obj, objtype): ... return self.i ... >>> class C: ... attx = Desc(23) ... >>> c = C() >>> c.attx 23 >>> c.__dict__['attx'] = 34 >>> c.attx 34
If object type's
__getattr__is defined, check whether it can give us the attribute:>>> class C: ... def __getattr__(self, key): ... return key+'_#' ... >>> c = C() >>> c.asdf 'asdf_#'
Raise
AttributeError.
Key 9: Making custom behavior attributes.
Any attribute of a class, which is an object defining any of these methods, acts as a descriptor:
__get__(self, obj, type=None) --> value__set__(self, obj, value) --> None__delete__(self, obj) --> None
When an attribute is searched in an object first, it is searched in its dictionary then its type's (base class's) dictionary. If found, object has one of these methods defined and that method is invoked instead. Let's assume that b is an instance of the B class, then the following will happen:
Invocation through class is type
.__getattribute__()transforming toB.__dict__['x'].__get__(None, B)Invocation through instance is object
.__getattribute__() --> type(b).__dict__['x'].__get__(b, type(b))
Objects with only __get__ are non-data descriptors, and objects that include __set__ / __del__ are data descriptors. Data descriptors take precedence over instance attributes, whereas non-data descriptors do not.
Key 10: Implementing class method and static method.
Class, static, and instance methods are all implementable using descriptors. We can understand descriptors and these methods in one go:
Class methods are methods that always get class as their first argument and they can be executed without any instance of class.
Static methods are methods that do not get any implicit objects as first argument when executed via class or instance.
Instance methods get instances when called via instance but no implicit argument when called via class.
A sample code usage of these methods is as follows:
>>> class C: ... @staticmethod ... def sdo(*args): ... print(args) ... @classmethod ... def cdo(*args): ... print(args) ... def do(*args): ... print(args) ... >>> ic = C() # staticmethod called through class: no implicit argument is passed >>> C.sdo(1,2) (1, 2) # staticmethod called through instance:no implicit argument is passed >>> ic.sdo(1,2)(1, 2) # classmethod called through instance: first argument implicitly class >>> ic.cdo(1,2) (<class '__main__.C'>, 1, 2) # classmethod called through class: first argument implicitly class >>> C.cdo(1,2) (<class '__main__.C'>, 1, 2) # instancemethod called through instance: first argument implicitly instance >>> ic.do(1,2) (<__main__.C object at 0x00DC9E30>, 1, 2) #instancemethod called through class: no implicit argument, acts like static method. >>> C.do(1,2) (1, 2)
They can be understood and implemented using descriptors easily as follows:
from functools import partial
>>> class my_instancemethod:
... def __init__(self, f):
... # we store reference to function in instance
... # for future reference
... self.f = f
... def __get__(self, obj, objtype):
... # obj is None when called from class
... # objtype is always present
... if obj is not None:
... return partial(self.f,obj)
... else: # called from class
... return self.f
...
>>> class my_classmethod:
... def __init__(self, f):
... self.f = f
... def __get__(self, obj, objtype):
... # we pass objtype i.e class object
... # when called from instance or class
... return partial(self.f,objtype)
...
>>> class my_staticmethod:
... def __init__(self, f):
... self.f = f
... def __get__(self, obj, objtype):
... # we do not pass anything
... # for both conditions
... return self.f
...
>>> class C:
... @my_instancemethod
... def ido(*args):
... print("imethod",args)
... @my_classmethod
... def cdo(*args):
... print("cmethod",args)
... @my_staticmethod
... def sdo(*args):
... print("smethod",args)
...
>>> c = C()
>>> c.ido(1,2)
imethod (<__main__.C object at 0x00D7CBD0>, 1, 2)
>>> C.ido(1,2)
imethod (1, 2)
>>> c.cdo(1,2)
cmethod (<class '__main__.C'>, 1, 2)
>>> C.cdo(1,2)
cmethod (<class '__main__.C'>, 1, 2)
>>> c.sdo(1,2)
smethod (1, 2)
>>> C.sdo(1,2)
smethod (1, 2)Tip
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