In one sentence, Drupal is a web-based content management system written in PHP that uses a relational database (usually MySQL) for storage.
PHP, which stands for PHP Hypertext Processor, is a high-level language designed for developing web applications. PHP offers a flexibility that supports both procedural and object-oriented (OO) approaches to software development.
The Drupal core is meticulously written in procedural-style PHP. Code follows strict conventions and every file and function is documented in the source code. APIs are often minimalistic, kept brief and functional. These factors make Drupal's source code easier to read in many regards than run-of-the-mill PHP code. However, the minimalism of the code can be deceptive too; the simple tools and modules are combined to produce the surprisingly complex features of this robust content management system.
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Why isn't Drupal object-oriented?
This question is asked often. The answer has several facets, one of which is simply that when the project began, PHP still wasn't up to snuff on the OO side. However, looking beyond the absence of constructors and classes, it turns out that Drupal employs many of the OO principles: encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism, etc. The OO programmer will quickly feel at home with Drupal's architecture.
A simplified stack diagram of Drupal looks something like the following:
At the center of Drupal is a core set of files consisting of bootstrapping code and important oft-used libraries. The Drupal Core Libraries act as the glue layer to bind Drupal's modules. They provide services such as database connectivity and management (illustrated by the dashed line to the database above), as well as the highly customizable hook framework about which we will talk throughout this book. Other standard features such as mail and image library abstractions, internationalization, and Unicode support are also included as Drupal Core Libraries.
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Many of the required system modules are referred to as Drupal Core Modules. In the above diagram, I would include these along with the rest of the modules, as they are modules in all proper respects.
But as important as these files are, there is a reason why the Drupal Core Libraries section in the above diagram is comparatively small. While these libraries provide a potent feature set, the real power in Drupal comes from its modular architecture.
What exactly is a module and what is its purpose?
The second question is easier to answer: Drupal's module mechanism is designed to provide a uniform method of extending Drupal's capabilities. The purpose of a module is to extend Drupal's capabilities. This answer brings us much closer to answering the first question. A module is a bundle of PHP code and supporting files that use Drupal's APIs and architecture to integrate new functional components into the Drupal framework.
The purpose of this book, then, is to explain how to write these bundles of code. The above definition means we will need to get familiar with the Drupal framework and its APIs. That is precisely what we will be doing as we progress through the book. Let's start here by taking a glance at the module architecture.
The files that make up modules are grouped into specific locations under Drupal's directory structure. That is, in the Drupal installation on a server's file system, Drupal modules must reside in a few specific locations (we will look at these in the next chapter).
When Drupal needs information about its modules, it will look in these predetermined locations. Each module is contained in its own directory, and has at least two files—one describing the module's content and one or more files containing code and other supporting material. (We will create both these files when we build our first module in the next chapter.)
Before a module can be used, it must be enabled by a Drupal administrator. However, once a module is enabled, then it is loaded as required, and Drupal passes requests to the module as necessary.
Some modules are so important that removing them would disable features essential for Drupal's operation. Likewise, there are some modules that provide features needed by a wide variety of systems. These two batches of modules, both of which are maintained by the Drupal development team, are collectively referred to as the Drupal Core Modules. These modules are included by default in the Drupal distribution, and enjoy active maintenance and development by the Drupal community.
Besides their prominent role in Drupal's operation, there is little to architecturally distinguish the Drupal Core Modules from any other module. They follow the same guidelines and use the same APIs. There is nothing particularly arcane about these modules.
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From Drupal's administration section, you can look at the list of core modules in Administer| Site building | Modules. The most important modules are the five that are required: Block, Filter, Node, System, and User. These cannot be uninstalled or disabled. Others, such as Menu, Locale, and Taxonomy provide basic services that are needed even in basic installations.
One of the diamonds in Drupal's architectural crown is the ease with which various modules can interact. Using the hook architecture, the services that modules provide can be woven together to create robust features without copious amounts of code.
In the course of this book, we will often make use of APIs and facilities provided by Drupal Core Modules. However, don't expect any chapters to walk through existing Drupal code. We make use of these modules, but we won't dwell closely on the implementation details of specific core modules. In this book, we will focus on writing our own modules.
That said, the core modules do provide an excellent reference for how Drupal code should be written. You may find it beneficial to read through some of that code in conjunction with this book.
How does Drupal know when to invoke a module to handle a particular request?
This is done through Drupal's hook mechanism, which we will examine carefully in this book. To start out, here is a brief explanation of how hooks work.
When Drupal handles a request from a user, it proceeds through a series of steps. For example, the Drupal core first bootstraps the application, defining critical variables and oft-used functions. Next, it loads critical libraries, themes, and modules. Next, it continues processing the request, mapping the requested URI to the correct handling code, and so on. Later, it applies a theme to the data, formatting information for output. Finally, it returns this output to the user's browser.
At predefined moments in this step-by-step process, Drupal executes hooks. What does this mean? In short, it means that Drupal examines some or all of the currently enabled modules, looking for functions that follow specific, predefined patterns. Some have linked this process to the "callback" method often used in event handling models. It is similar to this, but more dynamic.
For example, while it is creating the content for a page view, Drupal might scan modules for functions named <modulename>_block() and <modulename>_view() (where <modulename> is replaced by the name of each module that it checks). Modules that contain such functions are said to implement the hook_block() and hook_view() hooks.
When Drupal finds such functions, it executes them, and uses the data these functions return to build a response to send to the user. Drupal then continues its step-by-step processing of the request, perhaps executing many other hooks as it goes.
Once all the steps have been completed and a response sent to the user, Drupal cleans itself up and exits.
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Hooks for Object-Oriented Programmers
Those familiar with object-oriented (OO) programming may find it helpful to think of a hook as a mechanism similar to interface methods (or abstract methods) in OO languages. Hooks are functions that Drupal will look for, and in certain cases, expect in your module. Like interface methods, a hook's function signature must match Drupal's expected signature. Unlike interfaces, however, the module developer can choose (to a certain degree) which hooks to implement, and which to ignore. Drupal does not require that every defined hook be implemented.
Modules can define their own hooks, which other modules can then use. In this way, the hook mechanism can be extended to provide complex customized behavior.
When a module provides a function that matches a hook's signature, we say that that module implements that hook. For example, imagine that Drupal has a hook called hook_example(). If we were to define a module called mymodule that contained a function called mymodule_example(), we would be implementing hook_example().
We will write our first hook implementation in the next chapter.
Processing power isn't everything, especially for a web-based CMS system. A commercial-grade CMS must make it possible for site designers to give the site the look and feel they desire. Drupal provides a robust theme system for just this purpose.
The Drupal theme system is surprisingly complex. Just as with modules, the system is designed to allow extension and improvement and the hook mechanism is employed to allow this sort of extension.
While the code under the hood boasts a large (and complex) API, the top layer is surprisingly uncomplicated, and revolves around the idea of a theme.
A theme is a bundle of resources, including PHP templates, CSS, JavaScript, and images, that provides layout and style information for some or all of the Drupal content.
At its simplest, a theme may be composed of only a handful of files—a stylesheet, an information file, and a couple of images. In fact, using existing Drupal styles, one can create a custom theme in no time.
But themes can grow to meet the needs of the implementer. Custom templates, usually written in the PHP template language, can specify the details of the HTML structure. Special PHP files can be written to override theme engine behaviors. Complex configurations of JavaScript and CSS files are supported as well. Even modules can be used to interact with the theming system.
In short, a theme can be as simple or complex as the implementer desires.
Chapter 3 is devoted to themes, and in that chapter we will first create a simple theme, and then build up to a moderately complex theme.
Themes and modules are critical components in the Drupal architecture, and obviously the main focus of this book. However, before moving on, let's look at Drupal from another angle. Let's briefly examine how Drupal handles content.